Dirofilaria immitis (Heartworm) is a parasitic roundworm that is spread from host to host through the bites of mosquitoes. The heartworm is a type of filaria, a small thread-like worm. The definitive host is the dog but it can also infect cats, wolves, coyotes, foxes and other animals, such as ferrets, sea lions and even, under rare circumstances, humans. The parasite is commonly called “heartworm” because the adult reproductive stage of its life cycle resides primarily in the right ventricle of its host where it can live for many years. Heartworm infection may result in serious disease for the host. Wolbachia in an endosymbiont of D. immitis. 
Onchocerca volvulus is a nematode that causes Onchocerciasis or “River Blindness” mostly in Africa. Long-term corneal inflammation, or keratitis, leads to thickening of the corneal stroma which ultimately leads to blindness. Humans are the only definitive host for O. volvulus. The intermediate host or vector is the Black fly (Simulium spp.). O. volvulus, along with most nematodes, share an endosymbiotic relationship with the bacterium Wolbachia spp. In the absence of Wolbachia, larval development of the O. volvulus is disrupted or ceased.
Brugia malayi is a roundworm nematode, one of the three causative agents of lymphatic filariasis in humans. Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, is a condition characterized by swelling of the lower limbs. The two other filarial causes of lymphatic filariasis are Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia timori, which differ from B. malayi morphologically, symptomatically, and in geographical extent. B. malayi is transmitted by mosquitoes and is restricted to South and South East Asia. It is one of the tropical diseases targeted for elimination by the year 2020 by the World Health Organization. Wolbachia in an endosymbiont of B. malayi. 
Wuchereria bancrofti is a parasitic filarial nematode worm spread by a mosquito vector. It is one of the three parasites that cause lymphatic filariasis, an infection of the lymphatic system by filarial worms. It affects over 120 million people, primarily in Africa, South America, and other tropical and sub-tropical countries. If the infection is left untreated it can develop into a chronic disease called Elephantiasis. Wolbachia in an endosymbiont of W. bancrofti. 
Brugia timori is a human filarial parasite which causes the disease “Timor filariasis.” Anopheles barbirostris is the primary vector for this parasite. Like other human filariasis infections, Brugia timori filariasis causes acute fever and chronic lymphedema. The life cycle of Brugia timori is very similar to that of Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi, leading to nocturnal periodicity of the disease symptoms. Wolbachia in an endosymbiont of B. timori. 
What is needed are non-invasive methods for detecting the presence of parasites in a subject, such as the parasites mentioned above.